Difference Between Personnel Manager and Hr Manager Essay

ALTHOUGH both human resource management (HRM) and personnel management focus on people management, if we examine critically, there are many differences between them. Some are listed below: i) Nature of relations: The nature of relations can be seen through two different perspective views which are Pluralist and Unitarist. There is a clear distinct difference between both because the personnel manager, the focus is more on individualistic where individual interest is more than group interest. Here, HR manager through a shared vision between management and staff create a corporate vision and mission which are linked to business goals and the fulfillment of mutual interest where the organization’s needs are satisfied by subordinates and subordinate’s needs are well-taken care by the organization. Motorola and Seagate are good examples of organizations that belief in this Unitarist approach which also focuses in team management and sees employees as partners in an organization. Relation of power and management: The distribution of power with personnel manager is centralized where the top management has full authority in decision-making where even the personnel managers are not even allowed to give ideas or take part in any decision which involves â€Å"employees†. HR manager, on the other hand, has the decentralization of power where the power between top management is shared with middle and lower management groups. This is known as â€Å"empowerment† because employees play an important role together with line and HR managers to make collective and mutual decisions, which can benefit both the management and employees themselves. In fact, HR manager focuses more on TQM approach as part of a team management with the involvement and participation of management and employees with shared power and authority. The nature of management is focused more on bottom-up approach with employees giving feedback to the top management and then the top management gives support to employees to achieve mutually agreed goals and objectives. ii) Leadership and management role: Personnel manager emphasizes much on leadership style which is very transactional. This style of leadership merely sees the leader as a task-oriented person. This leader focuses more on procedures that must be followed, punishment form non-performance and non-compliance of rules and regulations and put figures and task  accomplishments ahead of human factors such as personal bonding, interpersonal relationship, trust, understanding, tolerance and care. HR managers are the leaders who are transformational. This leadership style encourages business objectives to be shared by both employees and management. Here, leaders only focus more on people-oriented and importance on rules, procedures and regulations are eliminated and replaced with: Shared vision; Corporate culture and missions; Trust and flexibility; and HRM needs that integrates business needs. iv) Pay policies and job design: Pay policies for personnel manager is merely based on skills and knowledge required for the perspective jobs only. The value is based on the ability to perform the task and duties as per the employment contract requirement only. It does not encourage value-added incentives to be paid out. This is also because the job design is very functional, where the functions are more departmentalized in which each job falls into one functional department. This is merely known as division on labour based on job needs and skill possessions and requirement. For HR manager, the pay is designed to encourage continuous job performance and improvement which is linked to value-added incentives such as gain sharing schemes, group profit sharing and individual incentive plans. The job design is no more functional based but teamwork and cyclical based. HRM creates a new approach towards job design such as job rotation which is inter and intra-departmental based and job enlargement which encourages one potential and capable individual to take on more tasks to add value to his/her job and in return enjoy added incentives and benefits.

Creation Science Should Not Be Taught in Public Schools Essay

Since the first days of religious evolution, religion and science have continuously fought for their place under the sun. The system of public schooling has become the field of the violent bloody conflict between the two different systems of beliefs. While religious fundamentalists sought to use public schooling as the means of religious propaganda, teachers and education professionals were trying to prove the relevance and importance of teaching objective scientific knowledge. Given the tension between science and religion, as well as the overt subjectivity of religious beliefs, religion in general, and creationism in particular, should not be taught in public schools, to provide children with the freedom of religious choice and to expand their intellectual and knowledge opportunities. The national system of public schools was always torn between the two opposite (religious and scientific) educational visions. While children were given a unique chance to look deeper into the essence of scientific knowledge, philosophers, education professionals, and religious adherents were trying to prove that religion did have to be taught at schools. Generally, religion is not a matter of scientific danger; moreover, religion can serve the source of reliable and never changing ethical and moral truths. The problem is, however, in that in its current state religion consciously denies an opportunity to reconcile with the objectivity and relevance of science. Moreover, religion works to deny the relevance of science as such, thus distorting children’s attitudes toward the world and putting them into a controversial environment filled with assumptions, myths, and beliefs. True, creationism and evolution seem incompatible; but while â€Å"many scientists are deeply religious and see scientific investigation and religious faith as complementary components of a well-rounded life† (Ludden 577), it is religion that promotes hostility toward science. Moreover, apart from being spiritual guidance, the Bible in general and the science of creation, in particular provide â€Å"the refuge from the calamities of life† (Green 581), while present day children should be prepared to face the realities of life, instead of trying to escape them. In the light of these hostile intentions and attitudes, it is understandable why education professionals are reluctant to integrate the science of creation with the major curriculum disciplines. Unfortunately, religious adherents do not accept the need for objectivity, which scientific knowledge promotes at schools. Instead of making religion a supplementary element of public education, fundamentalists view religion and the science of creation as instruments of propaganda. As a result, religion imposes narrow (and mostly misbalanced) convictions and opinions on children. As science seeks to reconcile with religion and to accept religion as a different (but not the opposite) scientific viewpoint, religion seeks to deny the relevance of science and does not accept the mere opportunity for science to be the basic element of public school education. The Kansas Board of Education has already limited the scope of scientific education in public schools, and the concept of evolution is no longer taught and explained to children. â€Å"This central concept of biology will be diluted or eliminated, thus reducing courses to do something like chemistry without the periodic table, or American history without Lincoln† (Gould 59). That is why the science of creation should not be taught at public schools – not because it does not have the right to exist, but because it promotes distorted scientific visions, and does not provide children with a chance to embrace the benefits of scientific advancement. The science of creation should not be taught at schools because it narrows the scope of the public schools’ development to absurdity and reveals true scientific ignorance. The science of creation should not be taught at schools because it is not science, but a set of ideas and beliefs that have never been documented or proved. To a large extent, religion should not be the central element of public education, due to the fact that it denies the need for intellectual development; it does not stir children’s imagination and cannot serve the object of scientific inquiry. As a result, the science of creation with its continuous denial of objective scientific achievements in general and evolution, in particular, is nothing more but the instrument of anti-intellectualism (Gould 59) which cannot promote intellectual progress at societal level. Krauthammer states that creationism is not included into any serious curriculum of any serious country, which means that serious countries and serious curriculum designers realize the intellectual threats of which creationism is the source. Moreover, it appears that serious countries are more attentive to the secular and scientific needs of their citizens and actively work to minimize religious fundamentalists’ access to public education. In our country, however, public schools remind a kind of a battlefield, with children being the victims of this secular vs. religious fight. Evolution is the sign of the ongoing scientific and natural progress, while creationism is the science of conservation that denies the need for social progress. Religion is an invaluable element of the social performance in America, but it is relevant to the extent that does not distort the founding principles of public education, with objectivity and freedom of choice in its center. Objectively, it is a matter of ethical tolerance, and in this situation science can teach children to hold and reconcile with contradictory beliefs. Religion has already ceased to be the source of tolerance, and creationism cannot teach children anything beyond unnecessary denial of the major scientific findings. Conclusion Creationism should not be taught at schools. Given the negativity and scientific denial which it promotes, religion will create distorted learning atmosphere and will work to impose religious beliefs on children. Instead of being the source of ethical values, religion has turned into the tool of anti-intellectualism and scientific conservation. As a result, to teach the science of creation at schools will mean to deprive children of the stimuli to search, investigate, learn and promote scientific and learning progress. Works Cited Gould, S. J. â€Å"Dorothy, It’s Really Oz: A Pro-Creationist Decision in Kansas Is More Than a Blow Against Darwin. † Time Magazine, no. 154 (1999): p. 59. Green, P. â€Å"The Battle Over Creationism. † In F. D. White & S. J. Billings, The Well-Crafted Argument: A Guide and Reader, 3rd ed. , Wadsworth Publishing, 2007, p. 580-83. Krauthammer, C. â€Å"The Real Message of Creationism. † 1999. Time. 11 May 2009. http://www. time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,992623,00. html Ludden, D. â€Å"Teaching Evolution at a Christian College. † In F. D. White & S. J. Billings, The Well-Crafted Argument: A Guide and Reader, 3rd ed. , Wadsworth Publishing, 2007, p. 576-80.

Economic Growth and Development Essay

During the beginning of the evolution of economics of development, no distinction was drawn between the economic growth and economic development. During the seventies, the economists thought of distinguishing the economic growth and economic development. When it comes to economic development, there are two different views. The traditional view has been to interpret it in terms of changes in the structure of national product and the occupational pattern of labor force and the institutional and technological changes that bring about such changes or accompany such changes. In this view, the share of agriculture in both national product and employment of labor force declines and that of industries and services increases. Various strategies of development which were suggested until seventies generally focused on rapid industrialization so that the structural transformation could be achieved. For this purpose, the appropriate institutional and technological changes were recommended to bring about such structural changes. According to C. P.  Kindleberger, economic growth means more output and economic development implies both more output and changes in the technical and institutional arrangements by which it is produced. Thus according to this view, the economic development implies growth plus structural change. Structural changes refer to the changes in technology and institutional factors which cause shifts of labor from agriculture to modern manufacturing and services sectors and also general self sustaining growth of output. An aspect of structural change which is of special mention is that during the process of economic development there occurs a shift of the working population from low productivity employment in agriculture to the modern industrial and services sectors having higher levels of productivity of labor. It is quite interesting to note that during the process of economic development the percentage share of the working population in agriculture sharply falls whereas the percentage shares of the working population employed in modern industrial and services sectors substantially increase. Apart from the change in the sectoral distribution of the labor force, there occurs a change in sectoral composition of national income in which while percentage contribution of agriculture to national income declines, percentage contributions to national income of industrial and services sectors increase. This is on account of the various changes taking place namely; a change in the pattern of consumption of national income of the people; economy growing steadily and moving upwards; income level of the people is found to be increasing and various changes that are taking place in the levels of productivity in the different sectors of the economy.

Identity and Representation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Identity and Representation - Essay Example Violent identity representation can also emanate from lack of awareness on personal identity that stresses on upholding of values and moral standards. For instance, I played soccer because it was the most popular sport among my friends. The relationship with my friends also made me rebellious. After enrolling in early education, my entire identity changed from being introverted and serene to notoriety and callous extroversion. My childhood was characterized by the development of friendships that did not last for long. My male status and Arabian origin warranted me the freedom necessary to play around and conflict with people. Although my behavior was unbecoming, I commanded respect and recognition among elder people owing to my dynamic identity and perceived sense of self. This fact made me feel that I did not belong to the group of naughty individuals all through my life. At the age of twelve the friends that I had inflicted enormous negative influence on me to a point of being rebe llious towards my parents. The new identity I acquired negatively affected my performance in school. It also made me develop disregard for the authorities resulting in occasional conflicts with the teachers. Most of my friends seemed attracted by my reckless behavior and encouraged me to be more notorious instead of rethinking my actions. Although I enjoyed such behaviors, my inner self did not approve of such behaviors making me to develop an epiphany. Communication within childhood groups was easy because the common language that most schools normally used was Arabic that everyone understood. However, uneasy moments arose when we had to use English when interacting with strangers or new group members. It was challenging to join other groups because one had to learn the tactics and practices of the new group as well as know the new group members. Understanding the diverse identities of many people is a challenge for everyone especially teenagers who have no experience in connecting.

Global operations management - multiculturalism and diversity Essay

Global operations management - multiculturalism and diversity management - Essay Example There are back office, front office, retail and wholesale operations as part of the operations management. Customer service is another area focussed by the operations managers. Customer service determines the success and failures of a business. It is aimed at building active relationships with the customers. Because of the highly globalized business environment at present, operations managers of modern era forced to interact with diverse customers and hence the success of operations managements at present depends on how well the operations managers are able to manage the multiculturalism and diversity in business. This paper briefly analyses the current operations management issues with respect to multiculturalism and diversity management. Some of the issues the host foreign country could face as a result of the expansion   The major issue in internationalising a business is the issues with respect to diversity and multiculturalism. No two individuals are alike; same way no two cou ntries are alike. Countries may differ socially, economically, politically, legally and culturally. All these aspects have a big say in operations management and hence success of international business depends on how well a country deal with these issues. ... ternational business (Victor, 2009) Communication is one of the vital segments of every business activities and language barriers often spoil effective communications. Communication may occur between the organization and its customers and the knowledge of a common language is necessary for effective communication. The business environment in different countries is different because of the economical, political, legal and social differences. For example, America and China are two entirely different countries politically, economically and socially and hence while doing business with China, America should consider the issues related to diversity and multiculturalism seriously. Social organizations in America and China are entirely different because of the cultural differences. In America, religion is a big entity whereas in China, it may not be the same. It is not necessary that two parties in a communication process may have similar knowledge or level of information (Contexting) in the topic of negotiation, especially when they happen to be of two different cultures. In other words, Americans and Chinese may have different levels of contexting and the knowledge of these differences is essential while conducting business negotiations. Authority and leadership styles are other areas in which America and China may differ. Americans are more dominating types compared to Chinese people. â€Å"The view of authority in a given society affects communication in the business environment significantly as it shapes the view of how a message will be received based on the relative status or rank of the message's sender to its receiver† (Victor, 2009). Non verbal communication, and the understanding the importance of time etc are also different in different countries which should be

Conducting a Marketing Analysis for Starbucks UK' Essay

Conducting a Marketing Analysis for Starbucks UK' - Essay Example The company’s management acted promptly, under the leaderships of the CEO Schultz, to resolve internal weaknesses and to adapt to the changing external market environment to ensure the survival of the organization in this industry. The survival of the company in tough market environment depends on the ability of the managers to target new market segments and redesign their products to suit the contemporary market needs. Over the past ten years, the food and beverages industry has shown an exponential growth and the same is expected in future. Currently, the food and drinks market is valued at about $35 billion and the projection shows that this is bound to rise. By the year 2020, the food and beverages industry is expected to have a total value of $60.0 billion. This growth trend of this industry can be linked with the rising demand of these products and services due to increased rise in social class and growth of population (United Kingdom Food & Drink Report, 2014). However, it is clear that the demand for food and beverages in rising in the developing markets such as India more than in settled economies such as the US. Unfortunately, the competition in the food and drinks and beverages is becoming a great threat to this business. The main competitors included McDonalds and Dunkin Donuts, Costa Coffee, Pete’s coffee and mom and pop coffee stores. Over time, the company has faced a strong competition from Costa Coffee, Nestle, Caribou Coffee Company and the Coffee Roasters. This competition has been accelerated by the poor pricing strategies that Starbuck continues to use over its history. The company’s weakness exists in its inability to effect positive price reduction strategies in markets where price is a major influence of demand (Cardenal, 2012). High prices of products have given the company a bad reputation and promises to be limiting factor in the future of this company. Another weakness

How will you Identify, Cultivate, and Thank the Donors at the School Assignment

How will you Identify, Cultivate, and Thank the Donors at the School - Assignment Example The process of fundraising funnel starts with prospecting (Graecht, 2014). My core strategy would be to build the  prospect list. For instance, I would ask my current donors and Board of Directors for referrals. I would like to inquire if they know any people would want to know more about my cause/organization. The podcast specifically mentions that a non-for profit organization should usually look forward to having individual donors and not expect big organizations to take an interest in my cause. I will try to identify individuals that I can connect with and possibly build a relationship. Even if I do not get direct donors by prospecting, but the prospect that I converse with might probably lead me to a major donor. Before asking for direct referrals, I need to build a stable relationship with my current prospects. And it takes a lot of efforts to strengthen this relationship. Not-for-profit organizations do well with regular donors (Graecht, 2014). One does not need to introduce the cause (pitching) and do the fishing every time to get the donations. A lifelong relationship with regular donors is the best way to fund my project. I would like to hold ‘non-ask events’ because they are not intimidating. People are more comfortable in coming to and interacting in these events as compared to direct donation events. But as I’ve already mentioned that the first step is to develop a relationship with a few people. From then onwards I can ask them for referrals or indirectly ask for donations. From the study material, it is clear that hardly anyone gives contribution when directly asked for money (Graecht, 2014). It is a passive strategy, but very effective because the people need to see the cause and the impact that their contributions will make. I would also develop a story for my project.

Are You Living With A Psychopath Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Are You Living With A Psychopath - Essay Example In recognition of those who have been abused, physically, morally or financially, to all of them, especially to Alicia C. Cussi, who lived brutally exploited, stripped and tormented by Teresa. Her own daughter, Alicia, inspired the creation of NEW ERA ELDERLY FOUNDATION, which will open to help to improve the elderly living conditions, preventing any kinds of elderly abuse caused by "family blindness" and excessive confidence to someone who would take advantage and betray the confidence, abusing us them with impunity. A reporter went to Ensenada, Mexico. Once he gets there, he goes to a supermarket. Upon arrival, a vagabond is being handcuffed by the police, being arrested because, being so hungry, he ate a piece of bread in the store. The reporter offers to pay for the bread, only 30 cents, and the guards let the indigent free. The vagabond was sorry and wants to pay the reported back. He pulls from his pocket a Rolex watch that he had tried to pawn only moments earlier; however, from the look of his appearance, the pawn manager had not accepted. The reporter, too, doesn’t accept the watch and he is pushed away by his friends to continue his trip. He keeps an eye on the news and returns many times to Ensenada, but he does not find the man; months after, he finds the vagabond in California. The reporter decides to lead the homeless man through the history and motivation that he has had to fight to build a foundation to prevent the abuse of older people who, like him and his mother, have been abused by a trusted family member.

Consider the Plan of Ayala in light of the Declaration of the Rights Essay

Consider the Plan of Ayala in light of the Declaration of the Rights of Man - Essay Example This is because â€Å"one’s right ends when another’s right begins†. Aside from that, the Declaration of the Rights of Man was perpetrated to curb the abuse of power of the legislative and executive powers of those that are in position which was one of the strongest causes of chaos and disillusionment among societies. The declaration is supposed to provide utmost transparency of the government’s responsibility to its people which indeed gave way to the close scrutiny of those in power’s action at any moment by all political institutions, thus, preventing contestations of principles and exercising power that only appeals to a chosen few. Some of the provisions of the Declaration of the Rights of Man would be gender equality, liberty without encroaching on the rights of others, right to property, security, resistance to oppression, sovereignty of the nation, laws based on the general will and etc. (Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789). There are a lot of considerations of the Plan de Ayala in the light of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. First of all, Plan de Ayala was a movement that was surged because of the desire and need to end the tyranny and be able to redeem Mexico and its people from dictatorships. What was happening at this time was that the Mexican people who were led by Don Francisco I. Madero are now taking the law in their hands as the government or any political institution which is supposed to make sure the rights of man is served is already controlled by a single party which is headed by Madero. Aside from that, what rightly belongs to the people are not being served and moral laws are being crossed. To provide concise examples of Madero’s abuse, he clearly went against his commitment to push for revolution which he gloriously initiated to prosper the land. This is because of the fact that he gave in to corruption that defeats the purpose of the National Sovereignty and keeps it out of the equatio n; the numerous jailing and killings of revolutionary elements who helped him bag his presidency so all the power would be centered to him alone; the brute force done towards people who question or demand from him the fulfillment of the promises of the revolution, these people whom he called rebels to cover up to his brutality; and forcing more people into an alliance with him to form a new dictatorship where only their specific interests and rights are served (Womack, J., 1969). Thus, because of all the corruption of not only the people but also of the government and the other political institutions, the people of Mexico took initiative to solve anarchy and tyranny by seeking help from the remaining pro-Revolution chief justices to lead the movement. Aside from overthrowing Madero and Porfiro Diaz, an ally, they seek to regain what is rightful to each Mexican such as giving back the fields, timber, and water usurped by the landlords from citizens who actually have the titles to the se corresponding properties. However for the landlords who do not have documents to support their claim of property, the goods will still be confiscated from the corrupt leaders and will be nationalized - to be given to the victims of war, pensions for widows and orphans etc. (Womack, J., 1969). This course of act, overthrowing their leader is a right they can demand for as it is

Production and International Logistics Case Study

Production and International Logistics - Case Study Example In the early 1900, Henry Ford, the owner of Ford Motor company became the world's richest men by his mass production success in the automobile industry. During World War II, the US government also requested him to mass produced bomber air crafts for the US Air Force. Ford Motor Company's production system during those years is a good example of a mass production system. Demand was so high, Ford has to mass produced to satisfy demand. Ford has all the good reason to hold high inventories during those years, that was, to please his customers by keeping a steady supply of his automobiles. This is also one of the reasons why some firms chose to mass produced. Another reason is the uncertainties in supply and supply capacity (Morton 1999). Toyota saw the success of Ford Motor but cannot replicate Henry Ford's production strategy due to the devastation suffered by Japan's economy after the war. This gave birth to a new concept of production where inventory level is zero, the lean production system, otherwise known as the Just-in-Time or JIT system. In the Machine That Changed the World, James Womack, used 'the term lean production to describe the profound revolution in manufacturing that was initiated by the Toyota Production System (cited by Asay, D. and Ott, S ,1998 ). Toyota's factories, along with most of its suppliers, can be spotted around Toyota City. Delivery of components and parts depended on the speed of the assembly line, and parts were delivered using logistics just at the right time when these are needed. The system eliminates the need to carry large inventories but close coordination between suppliers and logistics for the success of the system. When delivery of components or raw materials lagged behind, or when there are defects on deliveries, the strategic advantage and benefits that could have been gained from using the lean concept would be defeated. This led adherents of JIT to embark on a system of managing inventory and logistics in collaboration with total quality management (Heizer, Render 2001). The movement of supplies and other commodities from suppliers to users or consumers in the supply chain is a function of logistics. This is particularly important in a global economy where competition is borderless. International logistics therefore plays an important role in the success of production. The following section compares and contrast the traditional mass production system and lean production system. 2.0 Mass Production vs. Lean Production Traditional mass production differs from lean production in its overall organizational characteristics and manufacturing methods. Let us compare and contrast mass production as against lean production on the following terms: business strategy, organizational culture, customer relationship, production and scheduling, inventory management, quality assurance, information management and manufacturing cost. 2.1 Business Strategy In mass production strategy, the focus is on exploiting economies of scale of existing products and technologies. This strategy takes advantage of the decrease in the unit cost of the product as the volume of production per period of time increases (Kroll, et al, 1996). On the other hand, lean production strategy is customer focused. It seeks to identify and exploit new opportunities and competitive advantage through product design,

Behavioural finance Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Behavioural finance - Research Paper Example It is imperative to note that the mistakes made by portfolio managers, brokers and other market participants are driven by behavioral biases. This paper seeks to analyze major behavioral biases that cause the investment mistakes and the reasons as to the participants fall in the trap. During the decision making process, investors should fame the questions that will guide them in the process. According to Tversky and Kahneman 1124, the framing of a problem highly influences the decisions made by the investors. Framing bias entails the failure to reframe the choices given. As a result, investors suffer losses that can be avoided if the questions are reframed by the participants during a research. In order to ensure appropriate choices are made Lim 2540 depicts that managers should consider various factors. First, they should ask themselves whether or not they are addressing the actual problem. Secondly, they should integrate gains and losses in the choices available. Thirdly, they need to reverse the questions. For example, if there are sellers they should evaluate their behaviors assuming they are buyers. Fourthly, managers must frame the questions to cover the entre aspects of an investment for instance the total costs. In addition, managers must emulate an inten sive perspective during framing. The section below analyses some of the major statistical errors that are associated with framing bias. Representativeness heuristic is adopted by people to evaluate the probability based on the fact that an event A resembles and event B. For example, if an event B is highly representative to an event A, then it means that the probability that A originated from B is high (Tversky and Kahneman 1124). One of the major courses of errors that are related to representativeness is the use of similarity to determine the relationship between events. This is based on

Marriott Corporation” the Cost of Capital Essay Example for Free

Marriott Corporation† the Cost of Capital Essay What is the weighted average cost of capital for the Marriott Corporation and cost of capital for each of its divisions? – What risk-free rate and risk premium did you use to calculate the cost of equity? – How did you measure the cost of debt? – How did you measure the beta for each division? Solution What risk-free rate and risk premium did you use to calculate the cost of equity? – Risk-free rate proxy The risk-free rate is determined using the yields of U. S. Treasury securities, which are risk-free from default risk. U.S. Treasuries are subject to interest rate risk, therefore, the selected maturity should correspond to an investment horizon[1]. – Investment horizon According to the cost-of-capital calculation methodology used by Marriott Corporation, lodging division was treated as long-term, while restaurant and contract services divisions were treated as short-term because those assets had shorter useful lives. – Expected return proxy Arithmetic average return is more suitable than geometric mean as it is better in estimating an investment’s expected return over a future horizon based on its past performance (geometric mean is a better description of long-term historical performance of an investment). – Risk-free interest rate Taking into account the above, arithmetic average annual returns of long-term U.S. government bonds for the period 1951-1987 (4.88%, see Appendix 1) is  considered to be risk-free rate for lodging division. Arithmetic average annual returns of short-term U.S. government bonds for year 1987 (5.46%, see Case Exhibit 4) is considered to be risk-free rate for restaurant and contract services divisions. – Market proxy SP 500 index is selected as a market proxy as it is believed to be close to the true market portfolio. As it is important to use historical returns for the same market index used to calculate beta (which is given), an assumption is made that the given leverage data is calculated based on the same SP 500 index. – Market risk premium Market risk premium should be calculated for the same horizon as that used for the risk-free interest rate. Thus a spread between SP 500 composite returns and long-term U.S. government bond returns for the period 1951-1987 (7.88%, see Appendix 2) is a market risk premium for lodging division. A spread between SP 500 composite returns and short-term U.S. government bond returns for year 1987 (-0.23%, see Case Exhibit 5) is a market risk premium for restaurant and contract services divisions. How did you measure the cost of debt? Marriott Corporation and each division are given market value-target leverage ratios and credit spreads as well as U.S. government interest rates as of April 1988 (see Case Tables A and B). According to investment horizons discussed above, the following cost of debt is estimated: How did you measure the beta for each division? Ideally, when estimating beta by using past returns, time interval should be consistent with an investment horizon. Betas given in Case Exhibit 3 are estimated over 1986-1987 period. As these are the only betas given, they are assumed to be relevant for both long-term and short-term investment horizons. Equity betas of each division are calculated from comparable hotel and restaurant companies. Equity betas are then unlevered taking into account financing structure of each company according to the following formula: [pic], where Tax = 40% An average of unlevered betas of comparable companies is assumed to be a proxy for unlevered betas of Marriott divisions. For calculations of unlevered betas for each division see Appendix 4. What is the weighted average cost of capital for the Marriott Corporation and cost of capital for each of its divisions? WACC is calculated according to the formula given in the case taking into account the tax shield. Cost of equity is calculated according to CAPM model.

Singapore Airlines: Business, Marketing and Operations

Singapore Airlines: Business, Marketing and Operations This paper study is based on Singapore Airlines (SIA), in this case study the project has discuss about the SIAs Business, Marketing and operational strategy, what are the changes is the SIAs facing in future, how this airline company has changed its strategy and how this airline from a small country-state with a population of about three million people, on an island no larger than the Isle of Man, earn a reputation for being the most constant money-making airline in the world, in spite of the various world-wide recessions. The paper study also discuss about, how the Singapore Airline retained employees and the customers. QUESTION 1: Evaluate SIAs Business, Marketing and Operational Strategies and assess their effectiveness in relation to the competition? Over the last decade Singapore Airline has grown from a local airline into one of the worlds leading passenger and cargo carriers. In an attempt to survive, many of the organization which is working in the same business tried to observe and investigate the approaches or strategy which are using by Singapore Airlines (SIA, 2007). Finally it became clear and understandable that SIA are more competitive because of its business and operations strategy. The long term growth of a business design to provide and maintain shareholder value is called the business strategy. So, this part of the paper contains the business, market and operation strategy of Singapore Airlines. As we all know the SIAs has developed a status for being an industry innovator as well as doing things in a different way than its competitors who are in the same industry line, for example, As the study says SIA was the first airline to introduce free drinks, a choice of meals and free headsets back in the 1970s. Not only this, the Singapore airlines are the first who start a two year programme to install Kris World, that is a new in-flight entertainment scheme, for passengers in all three classes of its Megatop B747s. KrisWorld provides around 22 channels of video entertainment, around twelve digital audio channels, around ten Nintendo video games (Nintendo was best known for console industry and famous for home video game), and always alert the destination information and provides a telephone at each seat. By using this innovative ideas and creativity techniques the SIAs has done wonder in this airline business and earn a reputation for being the most consistent money-making airli ne in the world. Not only this, SIAs has done many changes in the history of airline and they provide numerous innovative ideas and doing things differently than its competitors. SIAs is the one who spend lot of millions in order to install KrisWorld movies; by doing this they had given an amazing entertainment to their customers while traveling and this lead to make them a different from their competitors and by adding this KrisWorld they are the first one to do so and this types of strategy help them a lot in becoming a number one in these business. SIA is the first in the market for discoverer and performer of the mostly innovative live teletext news service (KrisNews) and also for an interactive in-flight shopping service for its aircrafts. These creative and innovative developments by SIA, eventually won numerous awards for the best air lines. SIA was the first airline which bought a collection of finest chefs from all over the world to serve best in-flight cooking for its passengers as well as it was the first airline which tried to accomplish the wants of individual passengers by launch the special meal service with lighter and better options plus the unique in-flight meal service which is specially introduced for young flyers and enabled them to choose their desired meals up to 24 hours before the flight departure. Besides that, SIA started to update its menus monthly and even weekly to create an impression among its frequent travelers and also to keep track of flyers tastes. These were the main line of attack for SIA to compete among its competitors in the market and also to shore up its business strategy1. The main success of SIAs is Singapores Changi airport, Changi is situated in eastern end of the Singapore. Changi airport is one of the world busiest airport QUESTION 2: Using change management models evaluate how the company has changed; in strategic terms. QUESTION 3: What challenges is SIA facing in the future. What should SIAs business and operations strategies be for the future and why? Provide justification for your recommendations. As we know that SIAs is the one of the leading airport in the world but due to the large number of competitors in the world. SIAs have to maintain their top ranking in the future by maintaining their operations and business strategy and by developing more innovative ideas. The challenges which a SIA facing in future is mainly due to their competitors, as we all know in airline business the profit is very less and its mainly because of growing airline industry, passengers have many choices to select the low fare flight, so they must provide the better facility in a lower price that may affect their capital turnover. Recession is also the one of the factor for affecting then in future. Like in recession, there is a reduction in number of fliers. In future there is my advance airplanes/crew because of the competition and so the availability of the best crew is very important. There are more challenges that airline industry is facing like escalating costs and stiff competitions. As this part of the paper contains that which type of business as well as operations strategies should SIAs makes for their future and which makes them different from there competitors. Before going to this we must know about the operations strategy, operations strategy is the total guide of decision made the management which leads to the long-term growth for any type of operations, it is the long term process. Basically operations strategy is the method or tools that help us producing goods and services to the consumers. Operations basically deal with the producing or delivering of goods. This paper study discuss the competitive strategies of Porter, In 1980s Porter has argued that there is two types of competitive advantages which can be shared with either a broad or narrow competitive scope to create four well known business strategies: 2 Cost leadership, Differentiation, Focused low-cost, and Focused differentiation The Porters four competitive strategies are shown in table below:- Competitive Advantage Lower Cost Differentiation Cost leadership Differentiation à ¯Ã†â€™Ã… ¸ broad target Low cost focused Focused differentiation à ¯Ã†â€™Ã… ¸ narrow target Cost leadership technique or strategy is normally used by the companies for generally generating the profit even though the low price of the product or the services offered. In this strategy company mainly focused on the decreasing of price and retaining their old customer and generating the new one, so by applying this rule to the airline business SIAs have to take some initiative for lowing there prices in spite of that providing the full facility to their passengers. By doing this the SIA is always be a head from its competitor in present as well in future because doing this the high, medium and even low class passenger get attractive towards it and SIAs will make even more profit than earlier. Differentiation strategy, in this strategy a companys offers a service that consumers perceived it as a different and ready to pay a high amount or cost for that. So, SAI have to innovate some new facilities like new entertainment programs while travelling and some advance technology features with some extra cost, and it must be different as well as a new thing for passengers so that they are ready to pay a high amount for it. Or do offering the old facilities but offered it in that manner that passengers are ready to pay a high amount. This type of innovation or creativity make them different from there competitor and good for future also. Focus Differentiation strategy focus on a narrow sector and within that sector, they are attempting to achieve either a price advantage or differentiation. The principle is that the sector which is focusing must be better served by entirely focusing on it. So, SIAs must use this strategy for be a top in their business by focusing in a small small sector and offered better services to the passengers and then they will definitely be a head in the airline business. Reflection on Career Goals: Becoming an Ophthalmologist Reflection on Career Goals: Becoming an Ophthalmologist 1. Please provide evidence of activities and achievements which demonstrate your commitment to a career in this specialty and/or which have led to the development of skills relevant to a career in this specialty.(250 words) My inspiration for becoming an ophthalmologist stemmed from working in DARUL-HIKMAT DARUL-SHIFA, a charity eye hospital in Pakistan, which I have attended biannually since first year in medical school. There I observed how a small procedure brings a remarkable improvement in the quality of a patients life. Out of my own interest, I undertook 2 ophthalmology electives. I was privileged to observe practice on an incredible elective at MOORFIELDS EYE HOSPITAL. It was a great experience and further motivated me to become ophthalmologist. I achieved Distinction in Ophthalmology during my MBBS. As a Foundation year doctor, I regularly attended eye clinics and theatres in my free time. I did a week of a TASTER SESSION and managed to arrange a SPECIAL MODULE in ophthalmology during my GP rotation. I have made several international presentations and have published in peer reviewed journals. I have excellent hand to eye coordination and dexterity. I am competent in Objective Subjective Refraction. The combination of medicine and surgery, along with the variety of cerebral and fine motor skills necessary has drawn me to the specialty. It is the only specialty that has satisfied me to practice medicine at the highest level. Sight is the most valued of senses for many people, and to be in a position to improve and restore sight, as well as prevent eye disease, gives me great pleasure. I am a dedicated, hardworking, and energetic person. In addition, I have passed RCO exams and my experience in ENT, neurosurgery, diabetics and oncology make me a great candidate. 2. Please provide details of outstanding achievements outside the field of medicine. (250 words) I have regularly arranged clinical courses for the junior doctors and GP since 2008. The courses consist of â€Å"ECG interpretation day† â€Å"Pain Management Course† â€Å"Eye ENT day†. This involves a great deal of organizational and managerial skills. This has also given me experience of developing a successful business plans and dealing with the finances, which will be very beneficial for me, in the future, to set up new services in the NHS. Following additional demand, I have setup a company with a name of AR MEDICS to organise courses more widely. We won the first prize of  £5000 in South Asian Federation (SAF) Quiz competition, 2004. As Sports Coordinator at Medical College, I reformed the Sports Society and wrote its new rules and regulations. For the first time in its 25 year history, I arranged sports fixtures with other universities and introduced new sports. This improved college sports reputation remarkably. I was the captain of the basketball team and was awarded â€Å"Colours†. I learned to cope under pressure and improved my leadership decision-making skills. I enjoy hiking mountaineering. I have hiked up to the base camp of Nanga Parbat- the worlds 7th highest peak- and won first prize. 3. Clinical Audit: What experience of clinical audit do you have? Please state clearly where and when this was undertaken and indicate specifically your role. (250 words) â€Å"Evaluation of Glaucoma Management Services† M Amjad, R Job, S Walker. 01/02/2009 at Leighton Hospital. I initiated the study and formulated the pro-forma and collected data, which was presented in the Divisional Audit Meeting. I made recommendations to improve the system. I then re-audited to complete the cycle of the audit.. My material was later presented as poster at the Royal College of GP Annual Congress Nov 2009. A pilot Glaucoma care pathway was initiated from my recommendations., and Glaucoma Medisoft was installed to document and print clinic letters instantly. Improved documentation was made available for the GP ‘Management of Eyelid CA M. Amjad, S Raja. 01/09/2008 at Blackpool Victoria Hospital. Once again, I initiated the literature research, formulated a pro-forma, collected data, and analysed it. I presented this in the departmental audit meeting. â€Å"An Audit of Ophthalmology Emergencies presenting in AE† M Amjad, W Khan. 30/03/2007 at Blackpool Victoria Hospital. I researched the literature, formulated a pro-forma, collected, and analysed data. My conclusions were presented in the Divisional Audit meeting. â€Å"Management of Corneal Abrasion in AE† M Amjad, W Khan. 01/04/2007 at Blackpool Victoria Hospital. Again, I researched literature, formulated the pro-forma, collected, and analysed data, all for a presentation in the Divisional Audit meeting. Guidelines from Kings College Hospital have now been taken up inn the AE department. Management of Gastro-oesophageal CA six years audit† M Amjad, MU Javed. 01/03/2007 at Blackpool Victoria Hospital. I researched literature, formulated a pro-forma, collected, and analysed data. A presentation was made at the North West Regional Meeting for Upper-GI Carcinoma. â€Å"Major Limb Amputation, Environmental Study† M. Amjad, MU Javed, G Riding. 01/06/2007 at Blackpool Victoria Hospital. I designed pro-forma, reviewed literature, collected and analysed data for a presentation in the Divisional Audit Meeting. 2. Managing Teams: Please provide evidence of leadership skills, managing and/or working in teams. You may give examples from both inside and outside medicine. (250 words) I was elected as a Sports Coordinator at Medical College in my final year, which was a great honour and position of responsibility. In order to make this successful, I needed a good team and representatives from each year, whom I appointed. Working through the team and using my leadership skills, I was able to make significant changes. I reformed the Sports Society and devised its rules and regulations. For the first time since its foundation, I arranged fixtures with other universities and introduced new sports. I took on board ideas from team members and organized sponsors and a concert to generate funds. Our efforts improved the colleges sports reputation. This was because of the good management, delegation of responsibilities to team members and proper use of the recourses generated. I also captained the basketball team and was awarded â€Å"Colours.† This experience not only improved my team working and leadership skills, but also improved my ability to perform under pressure and make clear decisions. 5.Teaching Experience: What experience do you have of delivering teaching? (250 words) I have attended the â€Å"How to Teach Course†, in order to learn new teaching skills and develope a methodology. I have been regularly organizing and coordinating a full day study course for junior trainee doctors and GPs on â€Å"ECG interpretation† â€Å"Pain Management† ‘Eye and ENT day since 2008. The feedbacks has been excellent and the courses are very popular. I regularly delivered formal lectures to foundation and AE doctors on the use of slit lamp and management of acute eye problems. The feedback has always been good and higher than that given to my peers. I organized formal teaching and mock OSCE for final year Manchester medical students. In addition, I regularly present and attend the weekly regional teaching to keep up-to-date with advances within the specialty. My written feedbacks from the sessions have been very encouraging. I enjoy teaching and endeavour to continue it. 6. Research: Please provide evidence of research whether past or in progress. If you have undertaken or are undertaking a research project, please give details and indicate your involvement. (250 words) I worked as a junior Research Fellow Gastroenterology under Prof M Umer in Holy Family Hospital. I was involved in two projects, both presented as poster and also published â€Å" CHRONIC HEPATITIS-C RESPONSE TO ANTI-VIRAL COMBINATION THERAPY† A prospective study of 200 patients. The objective was to study the response of chronic hepatitis-C patients to combination antiviral therapy. I reviewed the literature, collected and analyzed data using SPSS. The results showed that combination therapy with interferon and ribavirin for CAH-C helps to treat the disease as well as to improve the symptoms of the patients. â€Å"SYMPTOMATOLOGY OF CHRONIC HEPATITIS-C† A case control study involving 1000 patients. The purpose was to study the common symptoms in patients with Chronic Hepatitis-C. I formulated the pro-forma, collected data and analyzed using SPSS. This was my first experience in research. Moreover, it was presented internationally. It gave me a lot of confidence and motivation. I learned the skills needed to search the literature, design a research project and to statistically analyze the results. It also improved my communication and presentation skills. Recently I was involved in two small studies and presented them as poster in RCO annual congresses. They are â€Å" The Impact of GDX in the management of new glaucoma referrals† and â€Å"Post-operative ocular complications after acoustic neuroma surgery† 7. Additional Achievements: Please note any prizes, awards and other distinctions (include specialty and qualifying distinction) which you may have. Please indicate undergraduate or postgraduate award, the awarding body and date awarded. (250 words) Grade A+ in MBBS Examinations, Rawalpindi Medical College, Jun 2005 Distinction in Ophthalmology (MBBS Exams), Rawalpindi Medical College, Apr 2004 Distinction in Forensic Medicines Toxicology (MBBS Exams), Rawalpindi Medical College, Jan 2001 Awarded Gold Medals for best in academics, Education Board, Jan 2000 Won Merit Scholarship for 5 years, Education Board, Jan 1999 8. Presentations: In this section please provide details of your most relevant presentations at local level (state whether departmental, hospital or trust). Please give a statement about your personal contribution to the work. (250 words) I have initiated these projects and presented the using PowerPoint at different meetings. Morbidity and mortality meeting. Presented in divisional meeting. 2009 â€Å"Negative dysphotopsia: Long-term study and possible explanation for transient symptoms.† Oral presentation in Journal Club, Leighton Hospital 2008. â€Å"Management of Eyelid CA† M. Amjad, S Raja Presented in departmental audit meeting in Sept 2008 â€Å"Major Limb Amputation, Environmental Study† M. Amjad, MU Javed, G Riding Presented in departmental audit meeting in Jun 2007 â€Å"An Audit of Ophthalmology Emergencies presenting in AE† M Amjad, W Khan Presented in departmental audit meeting in Apr 2007 â€Å"Management of Corneal Abrasion in [emailprotected] Amjad, W Khan Presented in trust annual review meeting in Mar 2007 â€Å"Management of Gastro-oesophageal CA six years audit† M Amjad, MU Javed Feb 2007 9. Presentations: In this section please provide details of your most relevant presentations at regional and/or national level. Please give a statement about your personal contribution to the work. (250 words) I have initiated, written and presented the following work. â€Å"Patient with previously undiagnosed Autoimmune Hypophysistis (AH) presenting with bilateral recurrent cystoid macular oedema secondary to Intermediate uveitis.† M. Amjad, A Sachdev, V Kotamarhi Submitted for Poster presentation at Royal College Ophthlmology Annual Congress, 2010. â€Å"Post operative complications affecting eyes after acoustic neuroma surgery.† A. Garrick, M. Amjad, I Marsh, C Noonan. Submitted for Poster presentation at Royal College Ophthalmology Annual Congress, 2010. â€Å"Restructuring and Innovating the Glaucoma Services. Role of Primary and Tertiary Care.† M. Amjad, R Job, A Asghar, S Walker. Poster presentation at Royal College of GP Annual National Conference, Glasgow, 2009. â€Å"The impact of GDX in the management of new glaucoma referral.† M. Amjad, R Job, S Walker Poster presentation at North of England Ophthalmology Society, Allensford UK, June 2009. â€Å"Patients perspective of new Intra-vitreal Anti-VEGF treatment† V. Kotamarthi, M. Amjad Poster presentation at Royal College Ophthalmology Annual Congress, Birmingham 2009. â€Å"Chiari malformation with the symptom of photopsiae as the only ocular symptom and no ocular signs.† M. Amjad, V. Kotamarthi Poster presentation at The 10th Congress of International Ocular Inflammation Society, Prague. May 2009 â€Å"Value of Ultrasound in detecting pathology in vitreous haemorrhage.† T. El-kashab, M. Amjad Oral presentation The 10th Congress of International Ocular Inflammation Society, Prague. May 2009 â€Å"A Case of Idiopathic Sclerochoroidal Calcification associated with Primary Open Angle Glaucoma.† M. Amjad, T. El-kashab, R Job, A Needham Poster presentation at The 10th Congress of International Ocular Inflammation Society, Prague. May 2009 Communication and interpersonal skills: Please give a recent example that demonstrates that you possess these skills. (150 words max) A 59 year old gentleman was referred over the weekend with a six month history of left temporal ache. All the examinations and bloods were normal, except for a disc swelling on his left side. I informed my consultant and devised a plan. Then, I liaised with the ENT and on call radiologist to review the patient. I kept the patient and his partner informed about all the progress throughout this time. After arranging an urgent scan, which showed a mass compressing his orbit, I arranged for the admission and booked theatre for removal of the mass compressing orbit. As the focal point of communication between concerned groups, I enabled us to work as a large team, efficiently and effectively, to save the patients eye from future complications. My ability to communicate and delegate facilitated the effective success of a multi-disciplinary team approach to patient care. Initiative: Please give a recent example that demonstrates initiative. (150 words max) In October 2008, I attended a busy eye camp in Pakistan. During my stay, I was astonished to find that operations are cancelled on-table by the surgeons due to high IOP. Only high risk patients were having their IOP checked due to high patient turnover. This resulted in a huge waste of resources. After discussion with the management, I took the initiative to provide a solution to this problem. After research and discussions with senior doctors visiting the camp, I proposed to use a puff tonometer to check IOP of all patients undergoing surgery. This method doesnt require extraordinary skill to use, hence it is effective in a busy camp. This proposal was accepted by the supervisors. It had been a great success with surgical cancellations dropping by more than 95%. I received a letter of thanks. Making such a difference in patient care makes me proud. PAPER 2 Describe how you realised that you wanted to become an Ophthalmologist? [Edit] My inspiration for becoming an ophthalmologist stemmed from working in DARUL-HIKMAT DARUL-SHIFA, a charity eye hospital in Pakistan, which I have attended biannually since my first year in medical school. There I observed how a small procedure brings a remarkable improvement in the quality of a patients life. Out of interest, I undertook 2 ophthalmology electives and I was privileged in observing practice on an incredible elective at MOORFIELDS EYE HOSPITAL. It was a great experience and further motivated me to become ophthalmologist. Achieving a Distinction in Ophthalmology during my MBBS, I joined Rawalians Research Forum during my final year in medical school, where I published two research papers. Since then I have been actively involved in audits and clinical studies. I have presented 14 papers in international and national conferences. In addition, I have several published articles in many journals. Most notably during the Haematology, I was involved in ‘randomized control trials. As a Foundation year doctor, I regularly attended eye clinics and theatres in my free time. I did a week of a TASTER SESSION and managed to arrange a SPECIAL MODULE in ophthalmology during GP rotation. I have excellent hand to eye coordination and dexterity. I am competent in Objective Subjective Refraction. In my recent job I have done 53 Phacoemulsifications,6 Squint Surgeries, 23 IV injections, and 64 argon YAG laser procedures. The combination of medicine and surgery, the variety of cerebral and fine motor skills necessary has drawn me to the specialty. It is the only specialty that has satisfied me at the highest level. Sight for many is the most valued of senses and to be in a position to improve and restore eyesight, and prevent eye disease gives me great pleasure. I am dedicated, hardworking, and energetic person. In addition, I have passed RCO exams and my experience in ENT, neurosurgery, diabetics and oncology will make me a great candidate. What do you think are the main issues in solving global blindness by 2020? [Edit] Approximately 314 million people worldwide live with low vision and blindness. 90% of these blind people live in low-income countries. 80% of blindness is avoidable. Without effective, major intervention, the number of blind people worldwide has been projected to increase to 76 million by 2020. The major causes of blindness in the world are cataract (50%), refractive errors (15-30%), Trachoma, Onchocerciasis, Glaucoma, Diabetic Retinopathy, Age Related macular degeneration. According to WHO, restorations of sight and blindness prevention strategies are among the most cost-effective and gratifying interventions in health care. In 1999, WHO launched VISION 2020 The Right to Sight. It is a joint programme of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB) with an international membership of NGOs, professional associations, eye care institutions and corporations. It aims for control of avoidable blindness by 2020; to achieve the aim the following issues need to be addressed. HR development: adequate and purposeful training of all eye care personnel is a key factor. Apart from ophthalmologists, the ophthalmic nurse, ophthalmic medical assistants and especially refractionsists should be recruited and trained appropriately. Infrastructure Equipments development: facilities should be equipped according to the tasks. Local entrerpreaunership should be encouraged to participate to reduce cost and enhance sustainability. Awareness Education of local community: community participation is vital and this can be achieved by creating awareness in the public about the diseases and the facilities available to treat and prevent them. Funding: regular and new funding sources should be explored. Outside medicine, what personal attributes make you a good candidate for a career in Ophthalmology? [Edit] I possess combination of qualities through which I have not only achieved over and above the required competencies mentioned in the RCOphth curriculum for ST1 and F2 but also a good working relationship with the colleagues to prove as a good and successful ophthalmologist. I maintain good rapport with patients. During my foundation training, I had experience of caring for terminally ill patients, breaking bad news and discussing the patients care and resuscitation status with their family, which I was able to do in an empathetic and sensitive manner. I am actively involved in audits, and publications to maintain good medical practice alongside the tough demands of clinical work. This requires refinement of my time management and organizational skills. I believe in sharing the skills and experiences, which I do by not only involving myself in teaching but also in charity and voluntary work. I possess qualities of a good team leader and an effective team player, which I have gained thr ough my clinical and non-clinical experiences. I prioritize work and this helps me in coping when working under pressure. I am making most of the opportunities to gain experience and refine my personal skills and will do my best to become a good ophthalmologist. Injuries in Sports and Exercise | Case Studies Injuries in Sports and Exercise | Case Studies PDG. Understanding Injury in Sport and Exercise Settings Self-Selected Case Studies Introduction In this case study we shall consider three athletes who are superficially similar and have presented with injuries as a result of their sport. The athletes will be referred to as Mr.A, Mr. B and Mr. C. Each is in their twenties and are club standard runners. Mr.A fell during a training run and sustained an inversion injury to his left ankle. Mr. B presented with a pre-patella bursitis of his right knee and Mr. C could not compete because of severe metatarsalgia. Mechanism and pathophysiology of injury If we consider the aetiology and mechanisms of each injury we can see that although they are largely sports related and, to a degree sports specific, each is fundamentally different in terms of presentation, cause, treatment and outcome. Let us consider Mr. A. who fell during training. He was a modest club runner who ran sporadically for personal enjoyment. He sustained an acute inversion injury which resulted in a partial tear of the lateral malleolar ligament. This ligament effectively joins the Tibia to the talus and calcareous and is largely responsible for the lateral stability of the joint. (Clemente C D 1975). There was immediate pain and subcutaneous swelling and, although he could weight bear immediately after the injury, Mr.A could only walk with great pain. Lateral distortion of the joint was extremely painful. The fundamental aetiology of the injury was a sudden inversion stress to the ankle which was greater than the ligament could withstand and this resulted in rupture of some of the collagen fibres of the lateral ligament together with the underlying joint capsule. This allowed substantial bleeding to track into the surrounding tissues which, together with both extravasation of synovial fluid and accum ulation of tissue oedema, led to the clinically apparent swelling over the lateral malleolus. Mr. B, by contrast, was a fiercely competitive sub-elite runner who noticed his injury developing more slowly over a period of about ten days. He was preparing for a race and had increased his running schedule both in intensity and distance covered. Initially he was aware of a discomfort in the anterior aspect of his knee which felt superficial. This was apparent at the end of his training sessions and persisted for a few hours while travelling home. As the training sessions intensified, the pain grew more persistent until it occurred throughout his running session. Although it was a nuisance, it was not severe. By the end of ten days it had become very severe to the point that there was demonstrable swelling over the lower pole of the patella which was tender to the touch and constantly painful. The mechanism of this injury is typical of the overuse injury seen with overtraining. It is believed to arise initially from micro tears within the body of the patella ligament which become inflamed and the constant stresses involved with training do not let the injury heal sufficiently and the inflammation becomes accumulative to the point that histology would show inflammatory changes occurring throughout the ligament and this, in turn, causes friction on the surrounding structures. (Hewett T E et al. 1999) This is manifest as a constant progressively painful swelling localised in the region of the patella ligament and is aggravated by movement of the knee joint. It is tender to the touch and limits exercise. Mr. C was a club runner of modest ability, but with an over optimistic appreciation of his own ability, who trained with the elite runners at the club. He frequently complained of minor injuries that were blamed for his particular lack of performance in races. On this occasion he presented with pains in his forefoot over the metatarsal heads which was very specific and occurred when the toes were flexed but not when they were extended (an unphysiological finding). He could run, but complained bitterly of forefoot pain after the race and could be seen hobbling off the track and around the changing rooms after the race. Examination of his foot was completely unremarkable and no consistent physical abnormality could be found. It was noticeable that Mr. C vociferously blamed this problem for his inability to perform well. No physical diagnosis was made but the aetiology of his complaint was thought to be a psychosomatic manifestation of his anxiety relating to his inability to beat the b etter runners at the club. This equated to a mechanism of cognitive distortion and denial together with a compensatory conversion symptom complex to rationalise his poor performance. (Patel D R et al. 2000) In short we see three competitive runners with common presentations of injury, but three very different mechanisms of pathophysiology and aetiology. Each will require a different approach to treatment and will follow a very different illness trajectory. Psychology of sports injury There are a number of different theoretical concepts (with differing degrees of security of evidence base) that can be usefully employed in describing sporting motivation and are therefore relevant to the incidence of sporting injury. (Wigfield A et al. 2000) The literature on these subjects is very extensive and beyond the scope of this essay to consider in any degree of detail. Reversal theory (Apter M J 2001) is commonly utilised in this regard and can describe relationships between the personality characteristics and motivational stimuli. Paratelic dominant athletes commonly enter the paratelic motivational state and are typically arousal seekers and engage in high risk and highly competitive sports (viz Mr. B )(Cogan N A et al. 1998) Mr.A, by contrast is the typical telic dominant athlete who tend to be arousal avoiders, who plan and consider their training carefully and prefer low intensity experiences. (Kerr J H et al. 1999) Let us start this consideration of the psychology of sports injury with an assessment of Mr. C who presents with a primarily psychological complaint Mr. C has an overtly psychosomatic presentation. This can be conveniently described in terms of reversal theory (Apter M J 2001). and the paratelic concept (Murgatroyd S et al. 1978). There are aspects of the metamotivational states described in the theory which are relevant to Mr. C’s perception of his motives for continued participation in running even when he was clearly failing to achieve his set targets. If appears that Mr. C has developed a variation of a paratelic protective framework with somatic constructs. He needs the high arousal gratification of the paratelic dominant athlete by lining up on the starting line with the elite athletes, but has developed his idiosyncratic phenomenological frame as a coping mechanism which allows him a sensation of safety from his perception of failure with a series of somatic excuses for his failure to perform. (Kerr J H 2001) One psychological technique that has been demonstrated to work in this type of case is a form of cognitive behaviour therapy which allows a realisation of the implications of an action to be re-evaluated by the client. (Fowler D et al. 1995) This was combined with a strategy of the setting of â€Å"step-by-step† short term goals. This effectively allowed the client to consider his need to unrealistically compare himself with the elite athletes and to allow him to achieve progressive attainable targets, thereby recognising and capitalising on achievement rather than ruminating on poor past performance comparisons with other (better) athletes. (Pain M et al. 2004). The idea is that by setting and achieving some short term goals, the client can focus on the present, make small progressive steps, and recognise new achievements, instead of ruminating on past performance level. (Hall H K et al. 2001). Complicity by the clinician in agreeing that his symptoms may actually be physical can be completely counterproductive in this type of case (see on) Injury management The object of management of any injury is clearly to maximise the degree of recovery possible and to limit and residual disability that may occur as a result of the injury. In broad terms we can consider the immediate (first aid) treatment and the subsequent longer term management as separate issues. (Hergenroeder A C 2003) In the case of Mr.A’s acute injury the essential elements of treatment (once the diagnosis has been confidently made) should be to prevent further tissue damage and bleeding by immobilisation of the joint (splinting), prompt cooling to reduce the tissue reaction to the injury, analgesia to relieve the pain (but with the caveat that pain relief should not be an indication to stress the joint) and pressure to minimise blood and tissue fluid accumulation. The longer term considerations should be that weight bearing should be kept to a minimum for about 7-10 days. Mobilisation should then begin in a graded fashion over about four to six weeks. Running on flat surfaces could realistically begin (possibly with an ankle support) after that time. Mobilisation (both active and passive) is necessary to ensure that the fibroblastic activity of the ligament repair mechanism does not restrict movement of the joint to the degree that the long term restriction of movement becomes a problem. (Orchard J 2003) Mr.A would be well advised to avoid running on uneven surfaces for a period of many months and to undertake a course of physiotherapy involving modalities such as wobble board training to improve his proprioceptive capabilities. (Lephart S M et al. 1997) Because of the injury, Mr.A should always regard himself as more prone to get a recurrence if he were to have another fall. Mr. B should be treated in a distinctly different way. There is no â€Å"acute† first aid treatment as such, as the critical factor here is to recognise that the injury is the result of overuse of a joint. Rest, or in some cases simply a reduction in the training schedule, is often all that is needed to allow the condition to resolve. (Krivickas L S 1997) There is some evidence to suggest that the use of NSAIAs may help to reduce the inflammatory reaction and thereby increase the speed of recovery but their use must be undertaken with caution because of the propensity of runners to consider that the analgesic properties of the NSAIA group can be equated with evidence of suppression of the pathophysiology of the lesion, and therefore they can start to increase their training schedule thinking that the inflammation has settled because the knee is pain free. (Nickander R et al. 2005) Some clinicians would recommend the use of steroid injections in the paratendon tissues. It has to be noted that this is contentious because of the risk of tendon damage if the steroid is injected into the wrong area. Mr. C requires no immediate physical treatment. Indeed on an intuitive basis, physical treatment could be considered counterproductive as it could be viewed as reinforcing his aberrant adaptive and compensatory mechanisms by colluding in the physical nature of his pathology. By entrenching his position, the clinician could be actually aggravating the problem. Once confidently diagnosed, Mr. C should be promptly referred to a competent sports psychologist for treatment along the lines that we have outlined above. Lecture to club The first serious examination of sports injuries as a specific entity was carried out by William Haddon in 1962 (Haddon W et al. 1962). The growth in interest since then has been exponential. In terms of general observation about sports related injuries we can observe that it is generally accepted that one of the common predictive factors for an injury is a history of previous injury. (Watson A W 2001) ( Lee A J et al. 2001) Various studies have reported increased odds ranging from 1.6 to 9.4. (Chalmers D J 2002). In order to accommodate this information it is clearly important to know the other risk factors involved The practical problem is that in order to assemble a coherent evidence base on this issue it is vital to have well designed and robust trials to consider. In short, there are very few of these. (Parkkari J et al. 2001). A critical analysis of the literature on the subject reveals that there is a surprising paucity of evidence for any significant preventative measure for sports injury. Part of the reason for this is that if there is anecdotal evidence that a procedure reduces the risk of injury then it is likely that a substantial proportion of participants will already be using it. This makes double blind trials almost impossible. Van Mechelen ran a trial of the prophylactic value of warming up and down only to find that over 90% of participants were using the technique already. (van Mechelen et al. 1993) It is clearly of dubious ethical possibility, quite apart from a practical possibility to get a control group of athletes not to warm up just to see if they are more likely to get injured. The management of sports injuries is therefore largely a combination of intuition based on anatomical and physiological principles, guided by experience and validated by what scientific evidence base there is on the subject. The three case studies presented above have all occurred in similar status club runners for completely different reasons. This therefore exemplifies the need to undertake a holistic assessment of each case in order to be in a position to make a confident and accurate diagnosis. One should note that there are occasions when the injury or the pathology is blindingly obvious, but it is more common to have to undertake further investigations in order to firmly establish the diagnosis. Mr.A might require X-Rays to exclude a chip fracture of his lateral malleolus. Mr. B might require some blood tests to exclude a connective tissue disorder and Mr. C may need further assessment in order to be confident that there is no genuine physical pathology. References Apter M J. (2001). Motivational styles in everyday life: a guide to reversal theory.  Washington: American Psychological Association, 2001. Chalmers D J (2002). Injury prevention in sport: not yet part of the game? Inj. Prev., Dec 2002 ; 8 : 22 25. Clemente C D. (19750. Anatomy: A Regional Atlas of the Human Body.  Philadelphia, PA: Lea Febiger; 1975 (Figure 180). Cogan N A, Brown R I F. (1998). Metamotivational dominance, states and injuries in risk and safe sports. Pers Individ Dif 1998 ;10 :789–800. Fowler D, P A Garety, L Kuipers (1995). Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Psychosis: Theory and Practice. London : Wiley 1995 Haddon W, Ellison A E, Carroll R E. (1962). Skiing injuries: epidemiologic study.  Public Health Rep 1962 ; 77 : 973–85. Hall H K, Kerr A W. 92001). Goal-setting in sport and physical education: tracing empirical development and establishing conceptual direction. In: Roberts GC, ed. Advances in motivation in sport and exercise. Campaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2001 : 183–233. Hergenroeder A C (2003) Prevention and treatment of sports injuries. Clin Sports Med 2003 Hewett T E , T N Lindenfeld, J V Riccobene, F R Noyes (1999). The effect of neuromuscular training on the incidence of Knee injuries in Female athletes. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 1999 Kerr J H, Svebak S. (1999). Motivational aspects of preference for and participation in risk and safe sports. Pers Individ Dif 1999 ; 27 : 503–18 Kerr J H. (2001). Counselling athletes: applying reversal theory. London: Routledge, 2001. Krivickas L S (1997) Anatomical factors associated with overuse sports injuries  Sports Med, 1997 Vol 5, no 3 Lee A J, Garraway W M, Arneil D W. (2001). Influence of preseason training, fitness, and existing injury on subsequent rugby injury. Br J Sports Med 2001 ; 35 : 412–17 Lephart S M, D M Pincivero, J L Giraldo, F H Fu (1997) The role of proprioception in the management and rehabilitation of athletic injuries,  American Journal of Sports Medicine, 1997 Vol 3 Pg 55-59 Murgatroyd S, Rushton C, Apter M J. (1978). The development of the telic dominance scale. J Pers Assess 1978 ;42 : 519–28. Nickander R, FG McMahon, AS Ridolfo (2005). Anti-inflammatory agents,  Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology Vol. 19 : 469-490 Orchard J, T M Best (2002) The management of muscle strain injuries: an early return versus the risks of recurrance. Clin J Sport Med, 2002 vol 3 pg 26-30 Pain M and J H Kerr (2004). Extreme risk taker who wants to continue taking part in high risk sports after serious injury. Br. J. Sports Med., Jun 2004 ; 38 : 337 339. Parkkari J, Kujala U M, Kannus P. (2001). Is it possible to prevent sports injuries? Review of controlled clinical trials and recommendations for future work.  Sports Med 2001 ; 31 : 985–95. Patel D R , E F Luckstead (2000). Sport participation, risk taking and health risk behaviours. Adolesc Med, 2000 Vol 312 pg 22-30 Stevenson M R , Peter Hamer, Caroline F Finch, Bruce Elliot, and Marcie-jo Kresnow (2000). Sport, age, and sex specific incidence of sports injuries in Western Australia. Br. J. Sports Med., Jun 2000 ; 34 : 188 194. van Mechelen W, Hlobil H, Kemper H C G, et al. (1993). Prevention of running injuries by warm-up, cool-down, and stretching exercises. Am J Sports Med 1993 ; 21 : 711–19 Watson A W. (2001). Sports injuries related to flexibility, posture, acceleration, clinical defects, and previous injury, in high-level players of contact sports. Int J Sports Med 2001 ; 22 : 222–5 Wigfield A, JS Eccles (2000). Expectancy -value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2000 ############################################################## PDG

Superstructure Preliminary Design Report

Superstructure Preliminary Design Report Two superstructure design options for the warehouse have been considered and discussed for the chosen layout, for the first design which is a portal frame and the other is a trusses structure. And all the materials were used in steelwork which are in S355. Design option one For this design option, simple portal frame are used as the main structural design and the frame contains 10 bays, each of them are 6m wide and 17m total length. This give a total area of 102m2 per bay which is satisfy the minimum requirement of the bay area of 85m2 at the beginning of the design brief. The height of the top of the column is 6m and the highest point of the roof is 6.9m which is using 6 degrees for designing the portal frame and which is satisfies the minimum floor to ceiling height of 6m at the beginning of the design brief as well. For the Section sizing, Loading calculations have been completed, and a size for each member has been chosen based on the loads acting on the structure. For the rafter, all secondary beams, (this includes the beams between columns, and the ridge beam), a section size of 356x171x45 UKB has been chosen. It has been assumed that the columns are unrestrained; this choice may be revised in the future. Under this assumption, along with the loading conditions, a section size of 533x210x22 UKB has been chosen for each column. Moreover, the diagonal cross spacing was used for the bracing design in order to maintain the stability of the whole structure under the wind loading and has been sized by using the load calculation conditions, a section size of 60x60x8 UKA has been chosen for all bracing on the roof. Furthermore, haunches with 10% of the span of the rafter long which to touch between each column and the corner of the rafter which mainly use to obtain the effect of hogging. Advantages: The main braces of the structure located on the roof of the portal frame that gives more cavity in between columns. In other words, it gives more options for the locations of the gates for the lorries to drop off. On the other hand, more fire exit can be set. As the roof make angles with both front and side of the structure, the brace on the roof can undertake wind pressure in both directions. In which, less brace is held in front and side of it. This cost less time and cost to construct. The whole structure is design to make with steel beams. This gives the structure with higher strength compare with concrete beams and columns. Between columns and columns, they have equal spaces. This led them to share the same amount to compression. The columns will share the same displacement during deformation. Easier approximation while the structure collapses. As each portal frame share the same structure, it spends less time to construct. Pin joints are used as the support on the bottom of each columns instead of fixed support, the columns of the structure undergo lesser banding moments. A vertical brace is held on the last part of the structure, it supports the brace on the roof. In other words, the materials use to make brace on the roof can be reduced. Two extra columns have been placed at both ends of the portal frame in order to support the end-span, as both end-spans do not have secondary beams either side to help stabilise the rafters in these sections. Disadvantages: While the main braces are on the top of the roof, the columns have to support higher load. The only vertical brace may block the space in between the columns. The main entrance may have to move. Design option two The second design option utilises a Pratt-pattern truss between the columns of each bay to replace a rafter with a haunch. Same as the first design, the frame contains 8 bays, each 6m wide and with a total length of 17m; giving a total area of 102m2 per bay which is satisfy the minimum requirement of the bay area of 85m2 at the beginning of the design brief. The height of the top of the column is 6m and the highest point of the roof is 6.9m which is using 6 degrees for designing the portal frame and which is satisfies the minimum floor to ceiling height of 6m at the beginning of the design brief as well. This design has no bracing as the truss can be afford for the lateral load to maintain the stability of the structure, attained from the use of a truss is sufficient enough to invalidate the use of bracing elsewhere in this particular design. Two extra columns have been placed at both end trusses in order to support the end-span, as both end-spans do not have secondary beams at either side of the truss to help stabilise them. The struts in the trusses are to be connected to the tie beam and rafter using gusset plates and bolts; and the bracing attached to the rafters using the same method. For the Section sizing, Loading calculations have been completed, and a size for each member has been chosen based on the loads acting on the structure. For the rafter, all secondary beams, (this includes the beams between columns, and the ridge beam), a section size of 356x171x45 UKB has been chosen. It has been assumed that the columns are unrestrained; this choice may be revised in the future. Under this assumption, along with the loading conditions, a section size of 533x210x22 UKB has been chosen for each column. Advantages The design has large amount of trusses set on top of the structure. It can from the side of the structure. The whole structure is design to make with steel beams. This gives the structure with higher strength compare with concrete beams and columns. As no vertical brace with the structure to the bottom, this allow extra lorry loading gates. Other than that, flexible fire exits can be set. Equal spacing within columns and columns, this lead to share the same amount to compression. The columns will share the same displacement during deformation. Easier approximation while the structure collapses. Pin joints are used as the support on the bottom of each columns instead of fixed support, the columns of the structure undergo lesser banding moments. Disadvantages As the trusses held on the top of the structure, it gives extra load on the column. Thicker columns have to be used. The cost is relatively high due to the following reasons: -Lot of connections with that trusses -More materials are used -More complied structure, harder to construct While space on the upper part uses as trusses, lesser goods can be stored, it may decrease the efficiency of the portal frame. Construction is time consuming as it has complicated structure. The calculations of the initial loading input Basic values Determine the basic wind velocity (For simplification the directional factor cdir and the seasonal factor cseason are in general equal to 1.0) 2 Basic velocity pressure Where 2 Peak Pressure Calculation of = (mean wind velocity) Where , 2 Calculation of turbulence intensity ( So, Imposed load Wind load(0 degree) Roof cladding, insulation and services Snow load UKC 533x210x92 (Unrestrained column) UKB 356x171x45 (Rafter secondary beam) UKA 60x60x8 (bracing) magnitude 0.6 0.871 1.5 0.6 92 45 7.09 unit kN/m2 kN/m3 kN/m2 kN/m2 kg/m kg/m kg/m length 4.8m 4.8m 4.8m 4.8m 6m 8.5475m 10.443m Initial load 2.88 kN/m 4.181kN/m 7.2kN/m 2.88kN/m 5.41512kN 0.44145kN 0.06955kN Combination Variable Variable Permanent Permanent Permanent Properties Unfavorable favorable characteristic values 1 1.5 1.5 1.1 1.5 1.1 0.9 1.35 characteristic values 2 1.5 1.5 1.35 1.5 1.35 1 1.35 characteristic values 3 1.3 1.3 1 1.3 1 1 1.5 Total load 1 4.32 kN/m 6.270912 kN/m 7.92 kN/m 4.32kN/m 5.956632 kN 0.397305 kN 0.093896415 kN Total load 2 4.32 kN/m 6.270912 kN/m 9.72 kN/m 4.32 kN/m 7.310412 kN 0.44145 kN 0.093896415 kN Total load 3 3.744 kN/m 5.4347904 kN/m 7.2 kN/m 3.744 kN/m 5.41512 kN 0.44145 kN 0.10432935 kN All the load calculation was took the total load 2 which got the largest value for the worst case. The approximate price calculations for both designs Design 1 The following table shows the materials used of the design; Size of steel Length(m) Quantity Usage UB 533x210x92 6 22 Column UB 356x171x45 8.54751 22 Roof UB 356x171x45 4.8 30 Roof UA 60x60x8 9.8 40 brace UA 60x60x8 7.68375 4 brace Total weight: Size of steel kg/m Total length(m) Total weight UB 533x210x92 92.1 132 12157.2 UB 356x171x45 45 332.04522 14942.0349 UA 60x60x8 7.089 536 3799.704 Total weight of steel =30900kg= 34ton Assuming price of steel is  £700 per ton, cost of the steel used =  £23800 Other than that, joints within the structure are also coincided. M16 bolts in each joint Number of joints Total number of M16 bolts 8 140 1120 Assuming price of each M16 bolt is  £2, cost of bolts used = £2240 Total cost of the structure is around  £26040 Design 2 Size of steel Length(m) Quantity Usage UB 533x210x92 6 22 column UB 356x171x45 4.8 40 Truss UB 356x171x45 1.7 110 Truss UB 356x171x45 8.6 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2.3 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2.4 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2.5 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2.7 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2.8 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 1.7 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 1.9 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2.2 22 Truss UB 356x171x45 2.4 11 Truss Size of steel kg/m Total length(m) Total weight UB 533x210x92 92.1 132 12157.2 UB 356x171x45 45 1045.6 47052 Total weight of steel = 59200kg =65.26 ton Assuming price of steel is  £700 per ton, price of the steel used =  £45700 Other than that, joints within the structure are also coincided. M16 bolts in each joint Number of joints Total number of M16 bolts 8 242 1936 Assuming price of each M16 bolt is  £2, cost of bolts used = £3872 Total cost of the structure is around  £3872. End of paper

Hyperacusis :: Term Papers Research

Hyperacusis Hyperacusis is used to describe a high level of sensitivity to sound. It is also known as dysacusis, oxylacusis, hypersensitive hearing, or phonophobia. Persons with hyperacusis do not show abnormalloudness growth but an abnormal discomfort for suprathreshold sound (Barnes & Marriage, 1995). Audiograms for hyperacusis sufferers are typically normal. They show normal sound thresholds but the sensitivity level is above normal. The comfort level for most people is below 100 decibels. People with hyperacusis can experience discomfort at 40 to 50 decibels or lower (Schwade, 1995). The disorder may be frequency-specific (Schwade, 1995). Not all sounds of the same loudness (number of decibels) cause discomfort, but only sounds within a certain range, thus a small change of frequency may cause discomfort at low volume. The prevalence rate of hyperacusis is unknown. It frequently occurs with tinnitus, which afflicts approximately 40 million poeple in the United States (Hazell & Jastreboff, 1933). A questionnaire in a clinic population by Sanchez and Stephens (1997) found that eight percent of tinnitus sufferers have hyperacusis. These two studies would suggest about 3 million people in the United States have hyperacusis. Further a survey conducted by the Autism Research Institute found up to 40% of children with autism to be affected by hyperacusis. Hyperacusis also has an occurence rate of 95% in children with Williams syndrome (Borse, Curfs, & Fryns, 1997). These facts plus its comorbidity with many other diseases leads one to believe hyperacusis is not an extremely rare disease. Hyperacusis is a poorly understood disorder resulting in many theories of etiology and prognosis. Hyperacusis can occur alone or in conjunction with other disorders. A sudden single burst of noise (Schwade, 1995), a head injury (American Speech-Language Hearing Association, 1995), or surgery to the face or jaw (Barnes & Marriage, 1995) can result in hyperacusis. Barnes and Marriage also proposed two types of hyperacusis, peripheral and central. Peripheral hyperacusis is when the earÕs built in mechanism against loud or sharp sound seems to have been turned off. Absence of acoustic reflexes, positive history of vestibular disorders, MeniereÕs disease, or perilymph fistula account for peripheral hyperacusis. Hyperacusis co-occurring with BellÕs palsy, Ramsey Hunt syndrome, and myasthenia gravis is also considered to be peripheral hyperacusis. Hyperacusis is also an otological complication of herpes zoster (Adour, 1994) and craniomandibular disorders (Erlander and Rubinstein, 1991). Barnes and Marriage (1995) proposed another type of hyperacusis called central hyperacusis. Central hyperacusis results in an inability to tolerate specific but not necessarily loud sounds. Hyperacusis :: Term Papers Research Hyperacusis Hyperacusis is used to describe a high level of sensitivity to sound. It is also known as dysacusis, oxylacusis, hypersensitive hearing, or phonophobia. Persons with hyperacusis do not show abnormalloudness growth but an abnormal discomfort for suprathreshold sound (Barnes & Marriage, 1995). Audiograms for hyperacusis sufferers are typically normal. They show normal sound thresholds but the sensitivity level is above normal. The comfort level for most people is below 100 decibels. People with hyperacusis can experience discomfort at 40 to 50 decibels or lower (Schwade, 1995). The disorder may be frequency-specific (Schwade, 1995). Not all sounds of the same loudness (number of decibels) cause discomfort, but only sounds within a certain range, thus a small change of frequency may cause discomfort at low volume. The prevalence rate of hyperacusis is unknown. It frequently occurs with tinnitus, which afflicts approximately 40 million poeple in the United States (Hazell & Jastreboff, 1933). A questionnaire in a clinic population by Sanchez and Stephens (1997) found that eight percent of tinnitus sufferers have hyperacusis. These two studies would suggest about 3 million people in the United States have hyperacusis. Further a survey conducted by the Autism Research Institute found up to 40% of children with autism to be affected by hyperacusis. Hyperacusis also has an occurence rate of 95% in children with Williams syndrome (Borse, Curfs, & Fryns, 1997). These facts plus its comorbidity with many other diseases leads one to believe hyperacusis is not an extremely rare disease. Hyperacusis is a poorly understood disorder resulting in many theories of etiology and prognosis. Hyperacusis can occur alone or in conjunction with other disorders. A sudden single burst of noise (Schwade, 1995), a head injury (American Speech-Language Hearing Association, 1995), or surgery to the face or jaw (Barnes & Marriage, 1995) can result in hyperacusis. Barnes and Marriage also proposed two types of hyperacusis, peripheral and central. Peripheral hyperacusis is when the earÕs built in mechanism against loud or sharp sound seems to have been turned off. Absence of acoustic reflexes, positive history of vestibular disorders, MeniereÕs disease, or perilymph fistula account for peripheral hyperacusis. Hyperacusis co-occurring with BellÕs palsy, Ramsey Hunt syndrome, and myasthenia gravis is also considered to be peripheral hyperacusis. Hyperacusis is also an otological complication of herpes zoster (Adour, 1994) and craniomandibular disorders (Erlander and Rubinstein, 1991). Barnes and Marriage (1995) proposed another type of hyperacusis called central hyperacusis. Central hyperacusis results in an inability to tolerate specific but not necessarily loud sounds.